What are the best practices for SQL database design?

Effective SQL database design begins with proper table structure and normalization. Start by organizing data into logical tables that minimize redundancy. Follow normalization rules (typically up to 3rd Normal Form) to eliminate duplicate data and ensure each piece of information is stored once. For example, instead of storing customer names in every order record, create a separate customers table and reference it via a foreign key. Use primary keys (like auto-incrementing integers) to uniquely identify rows, and choose appropriate data types (e.g., INT for IDs, DATE for timestamps) to optimize storage and performance. Avoid storing large text or binary data in frequently queried tables—consider offloading them to separate storage.

Performance and integrity are critical. Use indexes strategically on columns involved in frequent searches (e.g., WHERE, JOIN, or ORDER BY clauses). For instance, adding an index to an orders table’s customer_id column speeds up queries filtering by customer. However, avoid over-indexing, as it slows down write operations. Enforce data consistency with constraints like FOREIGN KEY to maintain relationships between tables and CHECK constraints to validate values (e.g., ensuring an order_date isn’t in the future). Avoid allowing NULL values unless necessary, as they complicate queries and can lead to unexpected behavior. Instead, use default values (e.g., 0 for quantities) or design schemas that eliminate ambiguity.

Maintainability and security should guide final design decisions. Document your schema thoroughly, including table relationships, column purposes, and business rules. For example, note whether an email column must be unique or if a status field has predefined values like ‘active’ or 'canceled’. Use stored procedures or views to encapsulate complex queries, reducing code duplication and limiting direct table access. Implement security measures like parameterized queries to prevent SQL injection and restrict database permissions to the minimum required. Plan for scalability by considering partitioning for large tables (e.g., splitting sales data by year) and testing schema changes in a staging environment before deployment.